By the first half of the 19th century, the potato . . . . . . . . the staple food in Ireland. In 1854, a disease . . . . . . . ., which resulted in widespread starvation.
A. had become
B. struck
C. was becoming
D. has struck
E. has become
Answer: Option C

The answer key saying C for blank 1 may be debatable. Most grammar textbooks would choose A. had become with "by + past time".